Continuing westward from northern Syria into the coastal areas, and then southward along the Mediterranean to the region near present-day Lebanon, one arrives at the birthplace of the Phoenician civilization.
The term "Phoenicia" originally meant "purple-red," derived from a type of purple dye produced in this region. This purple dye, extracted from sea snails, was considered as valuable as gold in the West for over a thousand years.
Geographically, Phoenicia's territory extended from Suksu in the north to Acre in the south, from the Lebanon Mountains in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The initial inhabitants were the Hurrians, but around 3000 BCE, the Canaanites migrated into the region and assimilated the local population.
Unlike many other peoples, the Phoenicians never established a unified kingdom. Instead, they founded a series of city-states along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, including major ones like Byblos, Tyre, Beirut, and Sidon.
Moreover, they utilized their seafaring skills to explore nearly the entire Mediterranean region. In the western Mediterranean, they established several colonial cities, the most famous of which was Carthage in North Africa.
Due to their widespread presence along the Mediterranean coast, the Phoenicians were known by different names in different regions. For instance, in the Canaan region of Syria, they were called "Canaanites." In Greek, they were known as "Phoenicians," while the Romans referred to them as "Punic."
Historically, the Phoenicians were renowned in the Mediterranean world for their navigation and trade. Out of commercial necessity, they began to improve their writing system.
The Phoenicians abandoned the complex cuneiform and hieroglyphic systems in favor of a new alphabetic script, the Phoenician alphabet, which became one of the earliest alphabetic writing systems in the world.
Phoenician history can be broadly divided into two phases: the Egyptian era, from around 2800 BCE to 1200 BCE, and the Phoenician flourishing period, from 1200 BCE to 800 BCE.
During the first phase, Phoenicia was politically dominated by Egypt. The earliest developed city-state in this period was Gebal in northern Phoenicia. By 2000 BCE, Sidon had risen to prominence, and by 1200 BCE, Tyre had become powerful.
In the second phase, due to the decline of Egypt and Crete, Phoenicia came to dominate the Mediterranean. They controlled the trade routes to the Indian Ocean and the northern routes through Syria to Assyria and Armenia, as well as the routes eastward through Syria to Babylon, Persia, and Central Asia. During this period, the Phoenicians transported large quantities of ivory, ebony, cotton, and bright iron, and exported amber to the mouth of the Po River in Germany and Italy, as well as tin to the Mediterranean coast.
It is well known that both North Africa and the Near East are relatively barren regions, with most areas outside the Mediterranean coast being arid deserts, unsuitable for habitation.
Thus, the Phoenicians had no choice but to establish trade outposts and colonies along their maritime routes. Many modern cities, such as Marseille, were founded on Phoenician colonies.
Some of these colonies grew in significance over time, the most famous being Carthage, which later engaged in numerous wars with ancient Rome. To this day, many people believe that the Phoenicians are the ancestors of some Tunisians.
However, no dynasty lasts forever. Around 800 BCE, Phoenicia began to decline, becoming a vassal of foreign powers, and its commercial dominance gradually waned, replaced by the Greek city-states.
By around 500 BCE, the Greeks had gained the upper hand in the eastern Mediterranean. In 332 BCE, Tyre fell, and the Phoenicians disappeared from historical records.
According to archaeological data, the farthest Phoenician colony was established in Cádiz, Spain, around 1100 BCE, used for transporting tin by sea and engaging in the slave trade.
In addition, their regular routes extended beyond the Mediterranean to the Canary Islands, where they transported important tin ore.
Yet, the discovery of a Phoenician tomb in southern Africa by Liang En and his team was astonishing, as even for a seafaring people, this location seemed exceedingly remote.
Fortunately, a stele found at the site resolved many of Liang En's questions: "This stele commemorates the life of Abdu-Shamash, son of Abdu-Dalaph of Tyre."
The stele provided detailed information about the deceased's identity, origins, and why he was buried here. According to the inscription, the deceased was a nobleman and an outstanding captain.
His hometown, Tyre (also known as Sour or Sur), was a famous city located on a small island off the southern coast of Lebanon, about 12 miles north of the Lebanon-Israel border.
Tyre, built on both the mainland and nearby offshore islands, was founded around 2700 BCE by colonists from Sidon.
Due to its excellent geographic location, the city quickly became highly competitive and eventually surpassed its sister city, Sidon, as the center of Phoenician fishing and trade.
The most famous account of Tyre is from the 9th century BCE when colonists from Tyre founded Carthage in North Africa. Like Sidon, Tyre is also mentioned many times in the Bible.
According to biblical records, Tyre had a friendly relationship with Israel. In fact, King Hiram of Tyre provided building materials for Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.
Due to its wealth and strategic location, Tyre was repeatedly attacked by powerful local forces, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians.
However, the city was ultimately destroyed during a seven-month siege by Alexander the Great. To defeat the stubborn defenders, Alexander completely demolished the mainland city and used the rubble to construct a causeway to the island.
After paying a high price to capture the city, Alexander responded to the Tyrian citizens' bravery with bloodshed and brutality: 10,000 were ordered to be executed, and another 30,000 were sold into slavery.
Although Tyre was rebuilt during subsequent Egyptian and Roman rule, it never fully recovered from Alexander's actions.
This captain was sent out when Tyre was still prosperous, and as a member of a seafaring city-state, he was an elite trusted with commanding a ship.
He and his companions were commissioned by the Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II to organize a fleet of 40 ships for a long voyage. This journey was so lengthy that it was impossible to carry enough provisions.
Under such circumstances, they had to find ways to replenish their supplies, sometimes staying in one place for months to plant crops until they could harvest and continue their journey.
Moreover, as part of their exploration, they conducted a series of hydrological and geographical surveys, often venturing inland along rivers to conduct investigations.
After all, the fleet's mission was not only adventure but also to acquire goods, a specialty of the Phoenicians. However, due to the sparse population in the entire region, they sometimes had to manually obtain goods themselves.
But such work was clearly not without risks. For example, the deceased had unfortunately died during one such inland expedition.
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